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Developing and offering mobile services requires collaboration by equipment manufacturers, operators, content providers and application developers. There is serious debate as to how the collective actions of these interdependent but legally separate actors can be governed. In the past, operators like Vodafone and KPN controlled most activities in so-called walled gardens, but these are now being replaced by more open models of collaboration. These developments may be driven by forces in the environment like Internet technology, the emergence of smartphones and regulation, but transitions between the phases of service innovation may also play a role. A co-evolutionary perspective that explains governance dynamics by combining these multi-level factors is required, but existing literature mostly takes a static perspective.
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