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49 CDE, note 39 susmentionnée, art.3(1)
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[49] CRC, supra note 39 art 3(1).
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La Convention des Nations Unies relative aux droits de l'enfant (CDE)
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The U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
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39 Convention relative aux droits de l'enfant, adoptée le 20 novembre 1989, UNTS 3 (entrée en vigueur le 2 septembre 1990) (CDE)
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[39] Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted 20 November 1989, 1577 UNTS 3 (entered into force 2 September 1990) [CRC].
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À cause de problèmes d'échéance, j'ai décidé de me concentrer sur la Convention relative aux droits de l'enfant (« CDE ») qui s'est attirée le plus d'appuis de la part des membres de la communauté internationale.
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Due to time constraints, I have decided to focus on the Convention on the Rights of the Child ("CRC") as it has gained the most support from members of the international community.[43]
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Et enfin, la CDPH devrait être utilisée comme guide dans l'élaboration du common law, en solutionnant les incertitudes, traduisant les politiques publiques et indiquant la teneur du droit coutumier international, et auquel on pourrait ensuite faire appel en droit civil et en common law. À l'instar de la CDE, divers articles de la CDPH seront utilisés et interprétés différemment dans des circonstances différentes.
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Lastly, the CRPD should be used as a guide in the development of common law by resolving uncertainties, reflecting public policy, and indicating the content of customary international law which can then be drawn upon in both common law and civil law. Just as with the CRC, different articles of the CRPD will be used and interpreted differently with different occurrences. One of the articles of the CRPD which offers great potential for the advancement of the equality rights in Canadian litigation is article 24; the right of persons with disabilities to access education.
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On pourrait souligner, pour étayer l'intention positive du Canada à l'égard de la CDPH[68], que selon la tradition du common-law, les États attendent en général d'avoir des motifs valables confirmant la conformité des lois et pratiques internes, avant de ratifier un quelconque traité. Quoiqu'il en soit, en me basant sur l'application de la CDE par les tribunaux canadiens, je crois que la CDPH sera d'abord utilisée comme instrument d'interprétation.
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On this note, a uniquely Canadian challenge is that of our provinces. Despite the fact that Canada worked so closely with the provinces and territories during the creation of the CRPD[67], the coordination of a unified approach for the implementation in Canadian litigation presents a challenge. One could point to the Common Law tradition that States usually wait to ratify a convention until there is reasonable ground for believing that domestic legislations and practices are in conformity to argue for Canada's positive intention towards the CRPD[68]. Nevertheless, drawing upon the Canadian courts' implementation of the CRC, I believe the CRPD will be used in its beginnings as an interpretive tool. Yet even used as an interpretive tool, the CRPD will probably have a significant impact on the rights of persons with disabilities.
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Au premier abord, on pourrait à juste titre douter de l'engagement du Canada envers la CDE puisqu'elle n'a pas été incorporée dans le droit interne[44]. Mais il faut revenir sur la position du Canada avant sa ratification de la CDE pour mieux comprendre son engagement.
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At first glance there is good reason to be suspicious of Canada's commitment to the CRC as it failed to incorporate it into domestic law[44]. Yet one must consider Canada's position before ratifying the CRC in order to better understand its commitment. Accordingly, the federal government's position stated that they consulted with all provincial governments and determined legislations were already in conformity with the Convention[45]. However when one considers for example the rights and the situation of certain Aboriginal children, it is "highly dubious" that the CRC has already been fully implemented into Canadian law[46]. On the contrary, to deem Canada's commitment to the CRC as symbolic would be inaccurate due to beneficial impacts of the Convention particularly in the area of the protection of the rights of the child[47].
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Au premier abord, on pourrait à juste titre douter de l'engagement du Canada envers la CDE puisqu'elle n'a pas été incorporée dans le droit interne[44]. Mais il faut revenir sur la position du Canada avant sa ratification de la CDE pour mieux comprendre son engagement.
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At first glance there is good reason to be suspicious of Canada's commitment to the CRC as it failed to incorporate it into domestic law[44]. Yet one must consider Canada's position before ratifying the CRC in order to better understand its commitment. Accordingly, the federal government's position stated that they consulted with all provincial governments and determined legislations were already in conformity with the Convention[45]. However when one considers for example the rights and the situation of certain Aboriginal children, it is "highly dubious" that the CRC has already been fully implemented into Canadian law[46]. On the contrary, to deem Canada's commitment to the CRC as symbolic would be inaccurate due to beneficial impacts of the Convention particularly in the area of the protection of the rights of the child[47].
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Il est d'autre part intéressant de noter que le juge Shore s'est prévalu de la CDE et de la CDPH pour anéantir les stéréotypes négatifs et a conclu que les « adultes dépendants » ne devaient pas être considérés comme des « enfants ».
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That being said, it important to note that tribunals and courts have already incorporated the CRPD in their decisions. In the recent 2010 decision of the federal court, Leobrera v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)[99], a 23 year old woman with intellectual disabilities applied for the judicial review of an immigration officer's decision refusing to grant the applicant's humanitarian and compassionate application under section 24(1) of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act. The applicant argued that the officer erred by confining her analysis of the best interest of the child as she should have been considered a "child" due to her disability in spite of her age. This is a noteworthy case as Judge Shore invoked both the CRC and the CRPD to dismantle negative stereotypes and argued that "dependent adults" should not be considered as "children".
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Par conséquent, la CDE a été perçue comme une force « omniprésente » au lieu d'être « exécutoire »[56] et finalement appliquée sur la base de pressions morales et politiques car les États Parties ne veulent être ni réprimandés ni embarrassés pour avoir déshonoré leurs engagements internationaux.
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The inconsistent access to and use of international norms have proved to be problematic[54]. This wavering commitment may be attributed to the challenges of the Canadian federalist state, the shortage of financial resources, and the lack of political and public pressure for action[55]. Courts seem to have given the Convention a "hesitant embrace", therefore the CRC has been deemed to have "pervasive force" but not "obligatory force"[56]. Ultimately enforced on the basis of moral and political pressures as a state party will typically not want to be embarrassed or chastised for dishonoring its international commitment[57]. However according to my review of existing caselaw, the CRC has had a noteworthy impact on the rights of the child and it serves as an indicator for the way in which the CRPD may be interpreted in courts.
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Au premier abord, on pourrait à juste titre douter de l'engagement du Canada envers la CDE puisqu'elle n'a pas été incorporée dans le droit interne[44]. Mais il faut revenir sur la position du Canada avant sa ratification de la CDE pour mieux comprendre son engagement.
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At first glance there is good reason to be suspicious of Canada's commitment to the CRC as it failed to incorporate it into domestic law[44]. Yet one must consider Canada's position before ratifying the CRC in order to better understand its commitment. Accordingly, the federal government's position stated that they consulted with all provincial governments and determined legislations were already in conformity with the Convention[45]. However when one considers for example the rights and the situation of certain Aboriginal children, it is "highly dubious" that the CRC has already been fully implemented into Canadian law[46]. On the contrary, to deem Canada's commitment to the CRC as symbolic would be inaccurate due to beneficial impacts of the Convention particularly in the area of the protection of the rights of the child[47].
  La Convention des Natio...  
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Par conséquent, la CDE a été perçue comme une force « omniprésente » au lieu d'être « exécutoire »[56] et finalement appliquée sur la base de pressions morales et politiques car les États Parties ne veulent être ni réprimandés ni embarrassés pour avoir déshonoré leurs engagements internationaux.
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The inconsistent access to and use of international norms have proved to be problematic[54]. This wavering commitment may be attributed to the challenges of the Canadian federalist state, the shortage of financial resources, and the lack of political and public pressure for action[55]. Courts seem to have given the Convention a "hesitant embrace", therefore the CRC has been deemed to have "pervasive force" but not "obligatory force"[56]. Ultimately enforced on the basis of moral and political pressures as a state party will typically not want to be embarrassed or chastised for dishonoring its international commitment[57]. However according to my review of existing caselaw, the CRC has had a noteworthy impact on the rights of the child and it serves as an indicator for the way in which the CRPD may be interpreted in courts.
  La Convention des Natio...  
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Au premier abord, on pourrait à juste titre douter de l'engagement du Canada envers la CDE puisqu'elle n'a pas été incorporée dans le droit interne[44]. Mais il faut revenir sur la position du Canada avant sa ratification de la CDE pour mieux comprendre son engagement.
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At first glance there is good reason to be suspicious of Canada's commitment to the CRC as it failed to incorporate it into domestic law[44]. Yet one must consider Canada's position before ratifying the CRC in order to better understand its commitment. Accordingly, the federal government's position stated that they consulted with all provincial governments and determined legislations were already in conformity with the Convention[45]. However when one considers for example the rights and the situation of certain Aboriginal children, it is "highly dubious" that the CRC has already been fully implemented into Canadian law[46]. On the contrary, to deem Canada's commitment to the CRC as symbolic would be inaccurate due to beneficial impacts of the Convention particularly in the area of the protection of the rights of the child[47].
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Mais aux niveaux judiciaire et législatif, l'engagement du Canada à l'égard de la CDE est plus que chancelant. D'une part, la Cour suprême du Canada a déclaré que les juges devraient se baser sur la CDE, ce qui ne devrait pas être contraire aux positions des organes législatifs lesquels, doivent-ils présumer, veulent confirmer les valeurs enchâssées dans la CDE[48].
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But Canada's commitment to the CRC at the legislative and judicial level is wavering at best. On the one hand, the Supreme Court of Canada has stated that judges should use the CRC to interpret the law and that this ought not to be at odds with legislatures because they must presume they would want to uphold the values enshrined in the CRC[48]. Most of the cases that have mentioned the CRC invoke article 3 (1) of the CRC[49], stating the best interest of the child[50], however other articles of the CRC have also been taken into account for the interpretation of different legislations[51]. On the other hand, in 2007, Canadian governments had not referred to the CRC in most of its child-related legislations enacted since the ratification of the Convention, with the exception of the federal Youth Criminal Justice Act[52]. Furthermore, they have seldom referred to the CRC in decisions which invoke Canadian obligations originating from the CRC[53]. Consequently, courts have experienced difficulty interpreting Parliament's intent for the implementation of the CRC.
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Ceci étant dit, même si l'on faisait référence à CDPH comme élément du common-law, c'est aux juges qu'il appartient de décider de l'interprétation finale de la Convention. D'après mes observations de la CDE, même s'ils sont souvent utilisés comme instruments d'interprétation, les traités internationaux ont la capacité de provoquer des changements positifs.
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Some have said that the CRPD (or parts of it) may be interpreted in courts as part of common law[109] which would make its implementation obligatory before the courts. On this point, my research found that courts will favor using the CRPD as an interpretive tool. That said, even if the CRPD were to be interpreted as part of common law, it is still up to discretion of judges to make the final decision on how the convention will be interpreted. My observations of the CRC indicate that although international conventions are often applied as interpretive tools, they still have the ability to create positive change. In addition, the previous use of international conventions in cases at the Supreme Court of Canada have set an important precedent for unratified conventions such as the CRPD. As Pothier has said, the "challenge ahead will be to convince the courts to act despite the common deference to Parliament"[110]. Nevertheless, there is something to be said for the willingness of different levels of Canadian courts to invoke the CRPD within less than two years of its ratification.
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Les enfants ont leur propre traité sur les droits de la personne « La Convention relative aux droits de l’enfant (CDE) ». Une section de la Convention relative aux droits des personnes handicapées (CDPH) leur est consacrée.
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There is a reason why children have their own human rights treaty: the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), and why they have a dedicated section in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). The reason is that the issues that affect children are intersectional in nature: they cut across the boundaries of health, education, welfare, and employment (for their parents to provide the supports they need to grow up, and for themselves as they transition from educational to work settings). Children also make up a significant percentage of historically and systematically discriminated groups, such as Indigenous, women, people with disabilities, immigrants, refugees, and racial and ethnic minorities. However, despite this representation, children often fall through the cracks in services and provisions offered to these groups, as they are often designed exclusively by adults with adults’ needs in mind.
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Des juristes ont alors argué que les tribunaux devraient utiliser les conventions comme « une obligation sur le plan de l'interprétation » et non comme pouvoir de persuasion ou d'interprétation[70]. Dans son livre, Mme Yolles[71] affirme que la CDE peut être utilisée de quatre manières différentes auprès des tribunaux canadiens.
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The Supreme Court of Canada has opined that international law must play a crucial role in the interpretation of domestic law[69]. On this point, legal scholars have argued that conventions should not be used as an interpretive or persuasive power by courts, rather an "interpretive obligation"[70]. In her book, Yolles[71] argues there are four ways of using the CRC as interpretive tool in Canadian courts. I would argue these methods can also be used in the context of the CRPD. Firstly, the CRPD can help resolve ambiguity in statutory language. The CRPD concerns the human rights and dignity of persons with disabilities and the ultimate role of courts is to protect human rights. Therefore, courts ought to be less concerned with usurping legislative supremacy[72]. In other words, unless there is a clear conflict, courts should interpret the CRPD in a manner consistent with Canada's obligations under the Convention. Secondly, the CRPD can serve to guide the exercise of judicial discretion in order to fill in omissions of existing Canadian law as well as place Canadian law in a broader context.
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Mais aux niveaux judiciaire et législatif, l'engagement du Canada à l'égard de la CDE est plus que chancelant. D'une part, la Cour suprême du Canada a déclaré que les juges devraient se baser sur la CDE, ce qui ne devrait pas être contraire aux positions des organes législatifs lesquels, doivent-ils présumer, veulent confirmer les valeurs enchâssées dans la CDE[48].
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But Canada's commitment to the CRC at the legislative and judicial level is wavering at best. On the one hand, the Supreme Court of Canada has stated that judges should use the CRC to interpret the law and that this ought not to be at odds with legislatures because they must presume they would want to uphold the values enshrined in the CRC[48]. Most of the cases that have mentioned the CRC invoke article 3 (1) of the CRC[49], stating the best interest of the child[50], however other articles of the CRC have also been taken into account for the interpretation of different legislations[51]. On the other hand, in 2007, Canadian governments had not referred to the CRC in most of its child-related legislations enacted since the ratification of the Convention, with the exception of the federal Youth Criminal Justice Act[52]. Furthermore, they have seldom referred to the CRC in decisions which invoke Canadian obligations originating from the CRC[53]. Consequently, courts have experienced difficulty interpreting Parliament's intent for the implementation of the CRC.
  La Convention des Natio...  
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Mais aux niveaux judiciaire et législatif, l'engagement du Canada à l'égard de la CDE est plus que chancelant. D'une part, la Cour suprême du Canada a déclaré que les juges devraient se baser sur la CDE, ce qui ne devrait pas être contraire aux positions des organes législatifs lesquels, doivent-ils présumer, veulent confirmer les valeurs enchâssées dans la CDE[48].
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But Canada's commitment to the CRC at the legislative and judicial level is wavering at best. On the one hand, the Supreme Court of Canada has stated that judges should use the CRC to interpret the law and that this ought not to be at odds with legislatures because they must presume they would want to uphold the values enshrined in the CRC[48]. Most of the cases that have mentioned the CRC invoke article 3 (1) of the CRC[49], stating the best interest of the child[50], however other articles of the CRC have also been taken into account for the interpretation of different legislations[51]. On the other hand, in 2007, Canadian governments had not referred to the CRC in most of its child-related legislations enacted since the ratification of the Convention, with the exception of the federal Youth Criminal Justice Act[52]. Furthermore, they have seldom referred to the CRC in decisions which invoke Canadian obligations originating from the CRC[53]. Consequently, courts have experienced difficulty interpreting Parliament's intent for the implementation of the CRC.
  La Convention des Natio...  
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Mais aux niveaux judiciaire et législatif, l'engagement du Canada à l'égard de la CDE est plus que chancelant. D'une part, la Cour suprême du Canada a déclaré que les juges devraient se baser sur la CDE, ce qui ne devrait pas être contraire aux positions des organes législatifs lesquels, doivent-ils présumer, veulent confirmer les valeurs enchâssées dans la CDE[48].
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But Canada's commitment to the CRC at the legislative and judicial level is wavering at best. On the one hand, the Supreme Court of Canada has stated that judges should use the CRC to interpret the law and that this ought not to be at odds with legislatures because they must presume they would want to uphold the values enshrined in the CRC[48]. Most of the cases that have mentioned the CRC invoke article 3 (1) of the CRC[49], stating the best interest of the child[50], however other articles of the CRC have also been taken into account for the interpretation of different legislations[51]. On the other hand, in 2007, Canadian governments had not referred to the CRC in most of its child-related legislations enacted since the ratification of the Convention, with the exception of the federal Youth Criminal Justice Act[52]. Furthermore, they have seldom referred to the CRC in decisions which invoke Canadian obligations originating from the CRC[53]. Consequently, courts have experienced difficulty interpreting Parliament's intent for the implementation of the CRC.
  La Convention des Natio...  
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Mais aux niveaux judiciaire et législatif, l'engagement du Canada à l'égard de la CDE est plus que chancelant. D'une part, la Cour suprême du Canada a déclaré que les juges devraient se baser sur la CDE, ce qui ne devrait pas être contraire aux positions des organes législatifs lesquels, doivent-ils présumer, veulent confirmer les valeurs enchâssées dans la CDE[48].
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But Canada's commitment to the CRC at the legislative and judicial level is wavering at best. On the one hand, the Supreme Court of Canada has stated that judges should use the CRC to interpret the law and that this ought not to be at odds with legislatures because they must presume they would want to uphold the values enshrined in the CRC[48]. Most of the cases that have mentioned the CRC invoke article 3 (1) of the CRC[49], stating the best interest of the child[50], however other articles of the CRC have also been taken into account for the interpretation of different legislations[51]. On the other hand, in 2007, Canadian governments had not referred to the CRC in most of its child-related legislations enacted since the ratification of the Convention, with the exception of the federal Youth Criminal Justice Act[52]. Furthermore, they have seldom referred to the CRC in decisions which invoke Canadian obligations originating from the CRC[53]. Consequently, courts have experienced difficulty interpreting Parliament's intent for the implementation of the CRC.
  La Convention des Natio...  
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Mais aux niveaux judiciaire et législatif, l'engagement du Canada à l'égard de la CDE est plus que chancelant. D'une part, la Cour suprême du Canada a déclaré que les juges devraient se baser sur la CDE, ce qui ne devrait pas être contraire aux positions des organes législatifs lesquels, doivent-ils présumer, veulent confirmer les valeurs enchâssées dans la CDE[48].
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But Canada's commitment to the CRC at the legislative and judicial level is wavering at best. On the one hand, the Supreme Court of Canada has stated that judges should use the CRC to interpret the law and that this ought not to be at odds with legislatures because they must presume they would want to uphold the values enshrined in the CRC[48]. Most of the cases that have mentioned the CRC invoke article 3 (1) of the CRC[49], stating the best interest of the child[50], however other articles of the CRC have also been taken into account for the interpretation of different legislations[51]. On the other hand, in 2007, Canadian governments had not referred to the CRC in most of its child-related legislations enacted since the ratification of the Convention, with the exception of the federal Youth Criminal Justice Act[52]. Furthermore, they have seldom referred to the CRC in decisions which invoke Canadian obligations originating from the CRC[53]. Consequently, courts have experienced difficulty interpreting Parliament's intent for the implementation of the CRC.
  La Convention des Natio...  
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Mais aux niveaux judiciaire et législatif, l'engagement du Canada à l'égard de la CDE est plus que chancelant. D'une part, la Cour suprême du Canada a déclaré que les juges devraient se baser sur la CDE, ce qui ne devrait pas être contraire aux positions des organes législatifs lesquels, doivent-ils présumer, veulent confirmer les valeurs enchâssées dans la CDE[48].
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But Canada's commitment to the CRC at the legislative and judicial level is wavering at best. On the one hand, the Supreme Court of Canada has stated that judges should use the CRC to interpret the law and that this ought not to be at odds with legislatures because they must presume they would want to uphold the values enshrined in the CRC[48]. Most of the cases that have mentioned the CRC invoke article 3 (1) of the CRC[49], stating the best interest of the child[50], however other articles of the CRC have also been taken into account for the interpretation of different legislations[51]. On the other hand, in 2007, Canadian governments had not referred to the CRC in most of its child-related legislations enacted since the ratification of the Convention, with the exception of the federal Youth Criminal Justice Act[52]. Furthermore, they have seldom referred to the CRC in decisions which invoke Canadian obligations originating from the CRC[53]. Consequently, courts have experienced difficulty interpreting Parliament's intent for the implementation of the CRC.
  La Convention des Natio...  
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Mais aux niveaux judiciaire et législatif, l'engagement du Canada à l'égard de la CDE est plus que chancelant. D'une part, la Cour suprême du Canada a déclaré que les juges devraient se baser sur la CDE, ce qui ne devrait pas être contraire aux positions des organes législatifs lesquels, doivent-ils présumer, veulent confirmer les valeurs enchâssées dans la CDE[48].
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But Canada's commitment to the CRC at the legislative and judicial level is wavering at best. On the one hand, the Supreme Court of Canada has stated that judges should use the CRC to interpret the law and that this ought not to be at odds with legislatures because they must presume they would want to uphold the values enshrined in the CRC[48]. Most of the cases that have mentioned the CRC invoke article 3 (1) of the CRC[49], stating the best interest of the child[50], however other articles of the CRC have also been taken into account for the interpretation of different legislations[51]. On the other hand, in 2007, Canadian governments had not referred to the CRC in most of its child-related legislations enacted since the ratification of the Convention, with the exception of the federal Youth Criminal Justice Act[52]. Furthermore, they have seldom referred to the CRC in decisions which invoke Canadian obligations originating from the CRC[53]. Consequently, courts have experienced difficulty interpreting Parliament's intent for the implementation of the CRC.